The First Wave: Chingghis Khan
CHINA: By 1209, Chingghis Khan had established himself as the leader over "all who lived in tents." However, his ambition was far from satisfied. He began to move against Xi Xia empire in western China. Initially, his goal was tribute rather than capture, but after the Mongol warriors left, the Chinese stopped paying and the Mongol conquest began.
In 1211, the Mongol horde invaded the Jin dynasty and easily broke through defenses. By 1214, most of the area above the Huang He River was in Mongol hands, except the Jin capital of Chungdu. The Jin continued to resist the Mongols until they were finally conquered in 1234. THE MOVE WEST: As the Khan grew tired of neverending warfare in China, he set his sights West. By 1218, the Kara Khitai Empire was conquered and the horde was able to move west into Persia, where the true challenge lay. THE KHWARAZMIAN EMPIRE: The Khwazaram-Shah publically humiliated ambassadors sent to negotiate peace. Chingghis Khan was outraged and built up a force of roughly 100,000 well-disciplined warriors to bring down the empire. City after city fell, as the fortified defenses were laid to waste. By 1220, the capital, Samarkand, fell and was subject to horrific massacres and devastation. The rest of the empire was conquered quickly. LAST DAYS: As his health began to decline, Chingghis Khan began to spend more time on the administration side of his empire. However, by 1227, the Chinese Xi Xia empire, who had long been conquered, stopped paying tribute. This campaign was the Great Khan's last. He died of undetermined causes at the age of 60, urging his successors to continue his battles. |
The Second Wave
Ogedei, the third son of Chinggis Khan. helmed the empire after the death of its first leader. Under his guidance, Kiev fell to his horsemen, known as the Golden Horde. The rest of Russia soon followed and it was established as a tributary state of the Mongol Empire. This was the only successful winter invasion of Russia in history.
The next goal in Ogedei's mind was the final subjugation of the Khwarazmian Empire, which had risen once more in Azerbaijan. Conquest was completed by 1231. Next was the fall of the remnants of the Jin Empire which was accomplished by 1234. The Mongols began a push into Europe by 1241, under the general Batu. However, the push was halted in 1242 when it was learned that Ogedei had died and Batu withdrew into Russia to consolidate his power. The next Great Khan was Guyuk, who died soon after claiming power. He was succeeded by Mongke, the last Great Khan before the Khanates were divided and independent. Mongke announced two goals: first to conquer the Song dynasty of China, and second to conquer the Abbasid Empire in the Middle East. His brother Helugu led the assault on the Abbasids. On the expedition to Baghdad, the Mongol army attracted many volunteers, especially Christians. The caliph turned out to be an incompetent military leader and reacted to the threat far too late. By 1258, within a week, Baghdad was conquered and an estimated 800,000 men were slaughtered and the city was devastated. Mongke himself rode against the Song dynasty, which was protected by mountainous terrain and rough geography. However, he died in 1259 due to disease and Kublai Khan took over the campaign, establishing the Yuan dynasty. Mongke's death led to an extended battle for succession, resulting in the empire being divided into four Khanates that were independent from each other. This was the end of united Mongol dynasty and the era of conquest that gained the greatest land empire of all time. |
The Pax Mongolica
The Pax Mongolica alludes to the Pax Romana, when the European world was united in peace under the banner of the Roman Empire. Similarly, the Mongols established a (relatively short) era of (relative) peace and connected Europe and Asia. The Mongol Empire stabilized and united widespread societies and established communication between the West and the East. It also provided security on the Silk Road and reestablished it as the dominant method of land transportation. The old isolated imperial societies gave way to an era of global communication and influence. Ideas, goods, beliefs, and innovations moved along the Silk Road during this time.
The Mongol administration and army ensured stability. They also standardized weights-and-measures and established a legal system to minimize crime. The Yam was also created as the first postal relay system between the West and the East. Messages were able to be sent and received relatively quickly. The Pax Mongolica declined in the fourteenth century due to a number of factors including the spread of the Black death, the fragmentation and fall of Mongol rule, religious intolerance, and corruption. |